Education has always been central to human progress, evolving to reflect the values and priorities of each era. Throughout history, philosophers have developed educational ideas to nurture not only the mind but also the moral and social fabric of learners. Long before the First Industrial Revolution (1760–1840), the Cartesian approach -- rooted in the philosophy of René Descartes -- had a major influence on education. This legacy continues to shape educational systems today. However, as we enter the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), marked by rapid technological advancements and an unpredictable job market, the Cartesian model is facing increasing scrutiny.
Education researchers are now exploring models that better align with contemporary societal needs and cultural traits. In this pursuit, a strong grasp of foundational educational philosophies remains essential. Defining "education" has always been a complex task for scholars, whether in ancient times or today. Across time, prominent philosophers -- Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and, later, Descartes -- offered concepts that mirrored the needs, values, and challenges of their times. Their ideas have profoundly shaped how societies understand learning and knowledge.
Socrates believed that true knowledge, like the soul, is eternal and unchanging, attained through introspection and active questioning rather than passive learning. He valued personal transformation over formal schooling, doubting its ability to foster self-knowledge. His student Plato envisioned a structured system that would develop “philosopher-kings,” wise leaders trained in disciplines like mathematics and philosophy. Plato endorsed a selective educational model, educating individuals based on their natural aptitudes. Aristotle, in turn, championed a more practical approach, blending character development with civic responsibility, preparing individuals for various societal roles through balanced skills and knowledge.
Despite their distinct philosophies, these three thinkers shared common views on education. All believed the purpose of education was to cultivate moral character and virtue and emphasized the importance of questioning and critical thinking. They saw education as transformative, helping individuals understand themselves and their potential, and valued a structured approach to learning -- whether through questioning, a curriculum, or a balanced, practical method.
Since the 17th century, Descartes' Cartesian model -- centered on logic, reason, and systematic inquiry -- has profoundly influenced not only higher education but educational systems as a whole. Descartes' famous phrase, “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am), serves as the foundation of his approach to knowledge. Through radical doubt, Descartes concluded that while he could question the existence of the physical world, he could not doubt his own act of doubting -- an unshakable certainty upon which he built further knowledge. He advocated a rationalist “method of doubt,” where questioning all assumptions could lead to clear, indubitable truths.
Descartes viewed the mind (the “thinking substance”) as separate from the body (the “physical substance”). To him, the mind was rational and distinct from the body’s sensations and emotions, which he saw as unreliable and prone to bias. Consequently, Cartesian philosophy has often prioritized intellectual learning over physical or emotional learning, sometimes viewing hands-on experiences as secondary to reasoning. Descartes' emphasis on logical reasoning and structured thinking lent itself to a system where knowledge is systematically delivered by a knowledgeable authority (the teacher) to passive recipients (the students). This teacher-centered model prioritizes the transmission of structured knowledge, where the teacher guides learning in a linear, methodical way, focusing on objective truths.
As global communication technologies advance, markets are becoming more interconnected, creating a need for graduates to develop not only technical expertise but also interdisciplinary knowledge
The Cartesian approach also segments knowledge into discipline-specific components, frequently overlooking interconnections between fields. For instance, in a traditional biology curriculum, the ecosystem might be studied in isolated parts -- flora, fauna, climate, and soil -- rather than as an interconnected system. This compartmentalization risks missing the complex dynamics of subjects such as climate’s influence on biodiversity. Descartes’ model favors step-by-step, progressive learning, where students master simple concepts before advancing to complex theories, aligning with his belief in beginning with clear, basic knowledge as a foundation for understanding.
Descartes’ emphasis on separating the mind from physical sensations and emotions, along with his compartmentalization of knowledge, has faced criticism in the context of the 4IR. Today’s university graduates need more than subject-specific knowledge; they require adaptive skills that blend emotional, physical, and intellectual abilities. This 4IR is merging digital, physical, and biological systems through advancements in AI, IoT, robotics, cloud computing, and data analytics, transforming industries, services, and employment at an unprecedented rate.
In manufacturing, automation and AI have introduced "smart factories" that increase efficiency and reduce waste. In the service sector, digital platforms and data analytics personalize customer experiences and streamline operations across industries from healthcare to finance, driving demand for IT and data analysis skills. As global communication technologies advance, markets are becoming more interconnected, creating a need for graduates to develop not only technical expertise but also interdisciplinary knowledge and adapting skills like emotional intelligence, collaboration, creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving, empathy, and resilience -- acknowledging the mind-body connection in learning.
In this changing technological landscape and evolving job market, new educational approaches are being sought. Influential educators like John Dewey, Paulo Freire, Rudolf Steiner, and Carl Rogers championed non-Cartesian models, promoting holistic, experiential, and learner-centered approaches. They criticized the “banking model” of education, where students are passive recipients of knowledge, and instead advocated for active, engaged learning. In contrast, learner-centered approaches encourage learners to explore, question, and apply knowledge actively -- moving away from the more hierarchical and directive nature of Cartesian-inspired education. This shift is part of why Cartesian models are seen as less suitable for the demands of the 4IR. Universities around the world are increasingly adopting learner-centered methods, including flipped classrooms, problem-based learning, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning, and experiential approaches.
Cartesian and non-Cartesian concepts represent two distinct perspectives on learning and knowledge. Combining the structured approach of Cartesian models with the interdisciplinary flexibility of non-Cartesian methods can offer a balanced path forward. For Bangladesh, integrating these models could help cultivate a workforce capable of meeting both global and local demands in a rapidly evolving world, equipping graduates with the adaptive skills necessary for success in the 4IR.
Dr MM Shahidul Hassan, Former Vice Chancellor, East West University and Professor (ret), BUET.
